We are indebted to O. Shagdarsuren (2000) for his chronicle of the 19th and early 20th century ornithological expeditions in Mongolia. From these he provides some detail on the seasonal distribution of the saker (Falco cherrug). Additional expeditions are cited by Meyburg and Meyburg (1983).

It is the purpose of this report to describe the recent studies that focused specifically on the saker. The first articles on the saker falcon in Mongolia actually focused not so much on the saker per se as on the systematics of the enigmatic Altay falcon or Altay gyrfalcon (formerly Falco altaicus, F. lorenzi, F. cherrug altaicus, or F. rusticolus altaicus). Early in this controversy, specimens of large falcons from the Sailugem mountain range in the Russian Altay, between Mongolia (Bayan Olgii Imag) and the Altai Autonomous Region of the Russian Federation, were pivotal in this controversy (Sushkin 1938). Academician Shagdarsuren himself participated in the century-long and continuing debate over systematics of this bird. In his article with Dementiev (Dementiev and Shagdarsuren 1964), they argue convincingly that the Altay falcon could not be a species separate from the saker because each Altay falcon morph has a saker morph counterpart and there seems to be an uninterupted continuum in color variation between the Altay falcon and saker morphs across Mongolia.

Many authors before and since have contributed fuel to this debate. Moseikin (2000) argues that there is indeed a separate population of large falcons (i.e., the Altay falcon) inhabiting the upper elevations of the Altay and Sayan Mountains. This bird is reportedly larger than the saker and may forage on different prey. Three recent studies were based primarily on museum skins. The first two reported that much of the evidence linking the Altay falcon with the gyrfalcon stems from the fact that a number of specimens labeled Altay falcon (either lorenzi or altaicus) are in fact gyrfalcons that were migrants to southwestern or south-central Siberia (Ellis 1995, 1996). Those papers also showed that all of the Central Asian (i.e., non-Siberian) summer specimens that were the most gyrfalcon-like were from a much more restricted area (i.e. only the region of the Russian Altay Mountains and the Sayan Mountains) than reported in previous publications. They also concluded that there is a smooth continuum between the saker and the "Altay gyrfalcon." In the third paper, which is also the most detailed morphometrics study, Eastham (2000 unpubl.) agreed that there is a continuum between sakers and Altay falcons and that the two should be considered synonymous.

Of field studies focused on the saker in Mongolia, the first included a 4000 km long survey conducted by Baumgart (1978a, b). He reported color morphs of adults and observations of a few nesting pairs near Ulanbaatar. All but one of these pairs nested in trees. A final pair bred, he believed, on a ruined building, a phenomenon that has become well known for Mongolia (Ellis et al. 1997, Potapov et al. 1999a). In 1994, following Baumgart's work, a study of the nesting ecology of the saker falcon in Mongolia began , continuing through to 1998. In total, over 150 breeding territories were found with over 200 eyries described .

Reproductive performance over two seasons and unusual breeding situations have been described (Ellis et al. 1996, 1997). Many nests were in odd situations and were also composed of man-made materials including cloth, wire, and twine brought by the original builders, ravens (Corvus corax), black kites (Milvus migrans) or buzzards (Buteo sp.). Birds sometimes became entangled in twine and cloth and either died or would have died without intervention (Ellis and Lish 1999, Potapov et al. 1999b).

Novel social behavior including the first documentation of siblicide for any falcon (Ellis et al. 1999) and a 'splayed-toes-flight display' (wherein adult falcons present their weapons to territorial intruders) have been described. In 1994, 1995 and 1997. Prey remains were gathered from about 200 eyries (unpubl.).

Aware that saker populations in Kazakhstan were plummeting due to over harvest for falconry (Levin 2000) and seeing a growing harvest in Mongolia, artificial eyries were constructed in 1997. The first year 65 artificial nests were created (Ellis et al. 1998). Some active nests were modified to better suit the falcons. Although many nests were destroyed by winter winds, in 1998 several of the 1997 nests were occupied by sakers.

In 1998 there was a great expansion of saker field work by Mongolian students and scientists after NARC supported a study by the Environmental Protection Agency, Mongolia. Their cooperators included the Ministry of Nature and the Environment, Mongolia State University, and the Mongolian Academy of Sciences. Those efforts resulted in an immediate estimate of the breeding population (Shijirmaa et al. 2000). Continuing work (Shagdarsuren 2000) promises to provide good information on home range (Potapov 2000), food habits (Gombobataar et al. 1999), productivity, and other aspects of saker biology (Potapov et al in prep). Fieldworkers are indebted to the National Avian Research Centre and the Environmental Research and Wildlife Development Agency, Abu Dhabi for funding and continuing to support this ongoing work and to the Environmental Protection Agency, Mongolia for their support.

Editor's note: an interesting aspect of Saker breeding biology which has recently been discovered and which would no doubt increase the accuracy of breeding population estimates for Mongolia is the discovery of true ground-nesting pairs of sakers (Potapov and Fox in prep). Past estimates have been based on power line surveys, and areas above ground level. Nests have previously been discovered at cliff bases (Ellis et al. 1997) but not in open areas. Surveys in open steppe are far more time-consuming but might reveal interesting densities of ground-nesting sakers. In this issue of Falco there is a short summary of the recently held conference in Ulan Baatar. For a complete overview of Saker Studies in Mongolia we look forward to the proceedings of the II International Conference on Saker Falcon and Houbara Bustard which are now in press. Some information is already available on the web at www.falcons.co.uk/mefrg/conference.htm

Acknowledgments: I express my deep appreciation to the following for funding: U.S. National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) and USGS Patuxent Wildlife Research Center 1994, 1995 and 1998; National Avian Research Centre, Abu Dhabi (NARC) 1995 and 1996; Institute for Raptor Studies 1997 and 2000; Mr. Howell Wynne 1997; an anonymous donor 1997 and 2000; the Turner Endangered Species Fund 1998. My work was conducted in cooperation with or under permits from the following : the Mongolian Ministry of Nature and the Environment 1994 and 1998; Mongolian State University 1995; Mongolian Academy of Sciences 1997; and Academy of Ghengis Khan 2000.

References:

Baumgart, W. (1978a). Concerning plumage, status, and migration of breeding eastern saker falcons. [In German.] Mitt. Zool. Mus. Berlin 54 (Suppl., Ann. Orn. 2):145-166.

Baumgart, W. (1978b). Mongolian saker falcon (Falco cherrug milvipes) nesting. [In German] Beitr. Vogelkd., Leipzig 24:362-364.

Dementiev, G. P. and A. Shagdarsuren. (1964). [About the Mongolian saker and about the taxonomic position of the Altai gyrfalcon]. [In Russian] Arch. (Collection) Zool. Mus. Moscow Gov. Univ. 9:3-37.

Eastham, C. P. (2000). Morphological studies of taxonomy of the saker (Falco cherrug - Gray 1833) and closely allied species. Ph.D. Dissertation, University of Kent, Canterbury. 295 pp.

Ellis, D. H. (1995). What is Falco altaicus Menzbier? J. Raptor Res. 29:15-25.

Ellis, D. H. (1996). The Altay falcon: origin, morphology, and distribution. Pages 143-168 in Proc. Specialist Workshop, Middle East Falcon Research Group, Abu Dhabi, U.A.E.

Ellis, D. H. and J. W. Lish. (1999). Trash-caused mortality in Mongolian raptors. Ambio 28:536-537.

Ellis, D. H., M. H. Ellis & Pu. Tsengeg. (1996). Productivity of saker falcons (Falco cherrug) in Mongolia. Pages 117-130 in Proc. Specialist Workshop, Middle East Falcon Research Group, Abu Dhabi, U.A.E.

Ellis, D. H., M. H. Ellis & Pu. Tsengeg. (1997). Remarkable saker falcon (Falco cherrug) breeding records for Mongolia. J. Raptor Res. 31:234-240.

Ellis, D. H., P. Tsengeg, & P. L. Whitlock. (1998). Saker falcon research and conservation efforts in Mongolia, 1997. Falco 11:7.

Ellis, D. H. et al. (1999). Siblicide, splayed-toes-flight display, and grappling in the saker falcon. J. Raptor Res. 33:164-167.

Gombobataar, S. et al. (1999). On saker (Falco cherrug) diet studies in Mongolia. Proc. 2 European Conf. of Raptor Research Foundation, Mikulov, Czech Republic. Buteo suppl. 1999:50.

Levin, A. S. (2000). Problems of saker falcon conservation in Kazakhstan. Falco 16:8-9.

Meyburg, B-U. and C. Meyburg. (1983). Vultures in Mongolia. Pages 99-106 in S. R. Wilbur and J. A. Jackson, eds. Vulture biology and management. Univ. of Calif. Press, Berkley.

Moseikin, V. (2000). Saker falcons of the Russian Altai. Falco 16:5-8.

Potapov, E., S. Banzragch, and D. Shijirmaa. (1999a). The paradox of industrialisation in Mongolia: expansion of sakers into flat areas is dependent on industrial activity. Falco 13:10-12.

Potapov et al. (1999b). Keep the steppes tidy: impact of litter on saker falcons. Falco 14:11.

Potapov, E., N. Fox, O. Shagdarsuren, D. Sumya & S. Gombobaatar (2000). Home ranges of Saker Falcons in Mongolia. Falco 15: 10-11.

Potapov, E. and N. Fox (2000). Ground-nesting sakers in Mongolia (in prep).

Shagdarsuren, O. (2000). A short history of saker falcon (Falco cherrug Gray 1834) studies in Mongolia. Falco 16:3-5.

Shijirmaa, D., S. Banzragch, N. Fox and E. Potapov (2000). The saker falcon Falco cherrug in Mongolia. Pages 263-268 in R. D. Chancellor and B.-U. Meyburg. Raptors at risk. Proc. 5th World Conf. on Birds of Prey and Owls (1998), Midrand, South Africa. WWGBP and Hancock House, Blaine, Washington.

Sushkin, P. P. (1938). Birds of the Soviet Altai and adjacent parts of north-western Mongolia. Vol. 1. [In Russian.] Academy of Science of USSR Press, Moscow, Russia.

Falco. 17